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Five Important things to do at GCTS

Tuesday, August 24th, 2010

Over the past six months we’ve received several emails asking about what we might recommend for new students to do at GCTS. Primarily students are concerned about “must-take” classes, or little hints for excelling at GCTS. It ought to go without saying, but the most important ingredient for excelling at Gordon-Conwell, or any other school for that matter, is hard work. But here is a list of five things we’d recommend to students, new and old, at our alma mater.

1. Take BTI Classes – Through the Boston Theological Institute you are afforded a number of opportunities as a student at GCTS. Not only do you have access to the libraries at each member school (a huge help in and of itself), but you can also cross-register classes. Most people pile on the classes at Harvard, and that is all well and good, but don’t miss some of the other great opportunities at BTI schools, especially Boston University and Boston College. Our personal list of recommendations is: Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible with Dick Saley at Harvard, and anything with Dr. Alejandro Botta at Boston University. We’ve also heard great things about Katheryn Pfisterer-Darr’s classes at BU. Of course you ought to also be on the lookout for classes that interest you with Peter Machinist and Jon Levenson, both at Harvard.

2. Take language classes – If you plan on learning to study the Bible, you want to go on for a PhD, or you just enjoy learning, then there is really no substitute for learning as many languages, at as high a level, as possible. Intermediate Hebrew at GCTS is a must, as are Aramaic and Ugaritic. We’d also recommend starting work on either Akkadian or Middle Egyptian (the latter can be had at BU with A. Botta). Also, don’t underestimate your own resources at Gordon-Conwell. If you are studying Old Testament or Biblical Languages, track down Tom Petter to take Epigraphic Hebrew and Advanced Hebrew Grammar (independent classes as of now). We also recommend plenty of Hebrew or Greek reading courses. We know it sounds lame to pay for three credits where you basically read/translate XX number of chapters and report to a professor about it before taking a final exam. But your Hebrew really will improve from the discipline. And please – certainly don’t neglect the basic languages. GCTS has a heavy emphasis on Greek and Hebrew, and if you don’t take the time to learn them well, you will suffer for it, both academically at GCTS and personally as you seek to go on for further study. Take advantage of that emphasis for your own benefit!

3. Listen to your fellow students, but also…don’t – What we mean by this is simple, your fellow students can be a great help. They can point you to resources you might not know about, tell you about classes you wouldn’t have taken otherwise, help to carpool to BTI courses, and a host of other things. However, it can also be discouraging when you talk to them. Time and time again Mandy and I were told never to take more than three classes a semester. Of course, if you do this, you’ll take three years just to complete a single MA. Mandy and I never took more than five, and we found our sweet spot to be four (which requires summer term classes to complete your degree in two years, three for the M.Div.). What we’re trying to say is this: know your limits academically, and go with those, regardless of whether others tell you you’re taking “too many” classes. If you’re getting As and you’re learning, don’t take fewer classes just because someone gets you worried.

4. Fill those “core requirements” with helpful classes – All MA students at Gordon-Conwell are required five “core classes.” At first, these classes can seem like throw aways. A world missions elective, Theology survey, Church history survey, etc, etc. However, if you have a religious studies/Bible college background, you are often able to waive the required theo and church history surveys and take more advanced electives in those areas. We really aren’t sure how to redeem the theology requirement yet, but we definitely recommend Historiography with Dr. Rosell if you can get the required survey waived. Also, don’t just throw away that world missions elective on “Personal Evangelism through the Local Church.” Instead, take Applied Anthropology with Paul Martindale. This class was without a doubt, for both of us, the single best non-biblical studies class we have ever taken. Dr. Martindale let us shape are research papers to a very large degree, and so we were able to interact with cultural anthropology in relationship with the Old Testament. We highly recommend this class.

5. Use Semlinks sparingly. Unless you live far enough away from the school that they become a vital part of completing your degree, don’t rely on them too heavily. They can be helpful for filling in a class or two, especially your core requirements, if you’re unable to take the advice in number four just because of the way classes pan out in the schedule, or if you need a summer class and there isn’t anything being offered that will meet your needs. Above all, do not use Semlinks for your basic language classes, Hebrew or Greek, especially if you’re going to be studying either language for the first time at GCTS (also, please, if you can avoid it, don’t take the basic language classes during the summer if you hope to retain the languages). Why do we give this advice? There is nothing wrong with Semlink courses, generally speaking. In fact, if you’re a pastor looking to brush up on Hebrew or Greek, do some extra study, or just an interested lay person, and you don’t want degree credit, the value for what you pay is phenomenal, and I’d highly recommend them. But the fact of the matter is, for degree-seeking students, there is just no substitute for in-classroom instruction.

In summary:
1. Take advantage of the BTI, and not just Harvard.
2. Take as many language classes as is helpful to your degree and personal goals.
3. Listen to the advice of others, but know your own academic limits.
4. Don’t waste your core requirements – if you can get waivers, look for classes that will relate somehow to your field.
5. Use Semlinks sparingly to fill in where scheduling doesn’t work out for you.

Feel free to contact either of us if you have questions, concerns, or would like further suggestions.

Why Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary?

Sunday, August 22nd, 2010

As we have previously noted, Calvin and I are recent graduates from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. We each have two Master’s degrees – one in Old Testament and one in Biblical Languages. We both had a great experience at Gordon-Conwell (henceforth known as GCTS), but we know that choosing a grad school can be intimidating. You can review the website, catalogs, and talk to admissions personnel, but how do you really know what you’re getting yourself into before you get there? Of course, the best way is to talk to alum, so here is our list of what to expect based on our experience at GCTS – and why GCTS may or may not be for you.

Do note that we can’t speak very well to the non-Bible based degrees at GCTS, but we’re assuming that if you’re reading our blog, you’re interested in studying the Bible (as opposed to Church History, Counseling, Education, Missions, etc.). Calvin started off in the M.Div program, so we can lump that in with the Bible-based MA programs to some extent.

GCTS has a heavy emphasis on languages. GCTS requires Hebrew and Greek for their M.Div students, and you’ll also have to take one or both in the Biblical Languages, Old Testament, or New Testament degrees. The MABL is language intensive; the MAOT and MANT only require the basic Hebrew or Greek courses. However, don’t be fooled. Any Bible degree and the M.Div also require exegesis courses. And, when they say you need Hebrew and Greek for their exegesis courses, they aren’t kidding around with you. Don’t come to GCTS if you don’t really want to learn and work with the languages (though we personally can’t imagine why you wouldn’t if you’re seriously considering going on for further study in the Bible!). This isn’t the school for you. If, on the other hand, this sounds great to you – then absolutely consider GCTS. Not only do they have the basic courses as most seminaries do, but they offer advanced level courses both in-class and through independent study that I daresay you won’t find at any other seminary in the U.S. Also, the BTI opens up even more unique language opportunities. (We took a year of Middle Egyptian at Boston University while at GCTS!)

This is a conservative, evangelical, inter-denominational school. We don’t know if that is a good or bad thing to you, but accept the statement for what it is. GCTS is an inter-denominational school, and so you’ll have interaction with both students and professors from all areas of the evangelical sphere. This also means that GCTS is of necessity more relaxed and accepting of the variety of opinions found in all of these denominations. We think this is a good thing; if you don’t, you probably don’t want to go to GCTS. On the other hand, GCTS is a conservative evangelical school. Don’t go to GCTS expecting to learn about JEPD – except in the negative – or a lot about the higher criticisms (they do teach basic text crit). Inerrancy, especially, is a big sticking point for most of the Bible profs (we suspect that there are a few profs in the closet on this issue, however, though we won’t name names publicly), so if you’re on that edge or over it, be prepared to step carefully or be ready to have your views challenged frequently. Note that this isn’t necessarily a reason not to consider GCTS. If you’re prepared to do some independent study on the issues, you can make up for the lack in that area (and there’s always the BTI).

GCTS is part of the Boston Theological Institute. Speaking of the BTI, this is one major reason to seriously consider GCTS. If you want to go to a religious school as opposed to a state school for your master’s work, or are considering it, GCTS has the distinct advantage of being a part of the Boston Theological Institute. You can look up which schools are part of this online, but basically you can cross-register (at GCTS’s prices) at any of the schools in the institute (you’ll be limited to classes which are offered through the respective school’s divinity departments, i.e. Harvard Divinity School, Boston University School of Theology). What this all means is that you’ll have the opportunity to expand your horizons, even if for you it’s only personal enrichment, beyond the evangelical theological sphere. You’ll also be able to pick up some classroom instruction in some areas (see above) that GCTS neglects.

GCTS teaches a strong exegetical method. We went to a Bible college for our undergrad, and so we already had a strong background in Bible. However, if there’s one thing that stands out above all others as to what we learned at GCTS, it’s Bible exegesis. GCTS takes their emphasis on languages and runs with it. You’ll learn how to take what you think is the tiniest, most insignificant passage and pick it apart, examining it from every possible angle, and then bring it back together to be able to solidly interpret it. This is a failing in many non-religious or non-evangelical schools. You just won’t get the education in how to really dig in deep to the text at many other schools. If you’re even considering GCTS, we’re assuming you’re interested in actually examining the text itself, and you’ll learn to do that here. One cautionary note: if you don’t have a strong background in Bible going in to GCTS, you will go deeper rather than broader. For us, that was a good thing. It could be a failing for others who need the broad content before going deeper.

GCTS has high academic standards. GCTS is a good school. I’ll say it again. GCTS is a good school. If you have a weak academic background, be prepared to have to improve significantly if GCTS sounds like a school you want to go to. You will do hard work if you go to this school for Bible. You will read thousands of pages every semester. You will write lengthy, involved papers. You will translate, translate, translate. If you have a family, have to work to pay bills, want to be involved in church, and you’re determined to get mostly or all A’s, you will find yourself pressed, stretched, and probably often stressed. If you aren’t already very disciplined with your time, you’ll have to learn to be. This is, however, a good thing, because if you do well at GCTS, you can feel fairly confident that you didn’t cheat yourself: yes, you most likely can hack it at a “real school.”

GCTS is a large seminary. This means some great interaction with a lot of different type of people, and it means that they have the resources to offer all the great language classes and beyond. However, it also brings with it some negatives: for one, professors are very busy, for a variety of reasons. If you want to have face time with profs, you will have to take the initiative. Most are more than amiable toward meeting and chatting, but it’s going to be on you to make sure you get that time. Another drawback is that class sizes are larger than we would have liked. While there will be some smaller classes, especially electives, the required courses will more often than not have upwards of 30 or 40 people. Compared to the classes we took at the BTI, which were all less than 20 people, GCTS classes are very large. We know that at undergrad institutions it’s common to take classes where there are hundreds of people in a large lecture hall, but we feel that small class sizes are almost always better, especially when you get to the level of grad work.

We had a great experience at GCTS, and don’t regret choosing the school at all. Especially since we came with an undergraduate degree in Bible and some languages already under our belt, with waivers and working with profs, we were able to mold the degree programs to fit our personal goals. If you are looking to do master’s work at an evangelical institution and want to do the work, we would highly recommend considering GCTS.

Eisenbrauns Deal of the Day – On the Way!

Friday, March 19th, 2010

My lame attempt at doing a little rhyme in the title of this post aside, I just wanted to express my excitement for today’s Eisenbrauns Deal of the Day. Among the Host of Heaven: The Syro-Palestinian Pantheon as Bureaucracy sounds like it will be a great addition to my growing library on ANE mythology, one of my personal interests. Of course, I won’t have the time to actually read it until the semester lets out, but I have added it to my “To Read” list for this coming year, and will be sure to post a review once I’m finished.

A Shout out for the New Testament

Thursday, March 18th, 2010

Some of you may know that Greek and I have a love-hate relationship. This semester, I have had the opportunity to take Exegesis of Revelation with Dr. Sean McDonough. As part of the course requirements, we are asked to read the entire book of Revelation in Greek (which makes sense, of course). At present, I have finished through chapter 14. I am pleasantly surprised to find that it actually hasn’t been that bad. What do you know.

Now, I know that the Greek of Revelation is not the hardest to be found in the NT, but generally speaking I find myself able to read with some proficiency (if not very rapidly) and have even enjoyed reading the book in Greek.

Of course, some of this may have to do with the fact that the class itself is one of the best I have taken at GCTS. Dr. McDonough is not only knowledgeable, but is also very engaging (and hilarious) as a teacher. His passion for the book of Revelation clearly comes through when he teaches, causing me to in turn feel excited about the subject. Of course, anyone who regularly uses examples from fantasy literature and media such as Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter is okay in my book.

My previous knowledge of Revelation has up until now been limited to what I know from reading the book in English and what I learned in my dispensationalist upbringing and my dispensationalist Bible college. I have since fairly thoroughly rejected dispensationalism, but at least as far as the book of Revelation goes, I’ve never heard a good teacher teach on the subject from another perspective, nor have I really bothered to study it out on my own in any depth. In fact, I’ve rather avoided Revelation like the plague (second only to Paul).

That being said, I am amazed to find that Revelation is an absolutely beautiful, amazing literary masterpiece, with a powerful message that seems to have been completely lost in the midst of pop theology of the Tim LaHaye variety. Since my knowledge is so stunted, my mind has been a sponge in this class.

It makes me wonder what would have happened if I had had a New Testament teacher like Dr. McDonough in college in addition to an absolutely amazing Old Testament teacher. No, no, don’t worry, I’m not thinking about changing to New Testament studies. However, it just goes to show you what excitement a good teacher who is passionate about his or her subject can generate. It has been refreshing to feel again like I did in Bible College when first discovering the joys of the Old Testament. Sometimes it is so easy to get bogged down in the papers and exams and pressures of trying to “perform” well, and forget the initial pure joy of learning about something I love that set me down this path.

That being said, I have a Revelation test tomorrow morning for which I need to go study!

The Floppy Hat Lives On

Tuesday, March 16th, 2010

As Calvin mentioned previously, we have in fact not fallen off the face of the planet. If the fall semester was especially busy for us, the spring has only been that much more so. Nevertheless, I am told by a certain person that I must find the time to start blogging again, if, in fact, The Floppy Hat is really not to fall off the face of the planet after all. Therefore, I will again seek to mortify the flesh (to use a phrase which I have learned from my Martin Luther class) by practicing semi-regular blogging.

Introductory notes aside, I have more to say today than to make excuses for our lengthy absence from the biblioblogosphere. After taking the necessary time for a bit of moping, we are now ready to announce to the blogging world at large that we unfortunately were not accepted into any of the Ph.D programs to which we applied this year.

Thankfully, we have received encouragement from not a few sources that (while there is always room for improvement) this is not because our applications were necessarily deficient. From what we have been able to gather, it seems that much of the issue this year was with economics. In other words, very limited funding and many well-qualified applicants. This is, of course, to some extent the case every year, but that much more so in the current economic climate.

What now? We will try again next year, and meanwhile, we will seek to improve our applications in any way we feasibly can during this intervening year. This includes learning German, attempting to get an article or a book review published, and of course, continuing in self-study by reading more in the text and in secondary sources. If anyone has specific suggestions, we would love to hear them.

As for The Floppy Hat, we can assure all that it is still open for business. You can expect that we will continue to blog on all things Biblical studies and beyond. In fact, it might even be the case that we blog more than we ever have before, once the semester is over. Though our immediate plans have been foiled, our long-term plans are still the same, which means that the march toward the Floppy Hat continues on!

Why I Love Bonnie: A Review of Biblical Hebrew, by Bonnie Pedrotti Kittel, Victoria Hoffer, & Rebecca Abts Wright

Friday, September 4th, 2009

Disclaimer: This review is on the 1st edition. I have not as of yet had the opportunity (or extra cash) to buy the 2nd edition. However, from what I’ve seen briefly of the 2nd edition, I don’t think too much of what I say below would change.

I was asked in a blog post to share my thoughts on Biblical Hebrew: A Text and Workbook, by Bonnie Pedrotti Kittel, Victoria Hoffer, & Rebecca Abts Wright, and my comment just became too long, so I figured I’d post about it.

I used Kittel for first year Hebrew as a student in my undergrad and also use it as a teacher (laypeople, at the moment). One of the reasons I decided to use it when teaching is that I loved it as a student. In case you’re confused about the title of my post, we affectionately called the book “Bonnie” in my undergrad (a practice I continue with my students).

The book is very much what the subtitle says: “text and workbook.” It’s not a grammar, and it can’t really be used as one, so if the student wanted a beginning reference grammar he or she would require a supplemental book. However, for first year students I don’t really think that’s necessary. She does have a sizable and easy to read section in the back with all the verbal paradigms, which is nice for reference.

One of the reasons I love Bonnie is because it’s so inductive. Literally, lesson one (after learning the aleph-bet) starts you reading the Hebrew text. While I’ve not looked at every first-year Hebrew textbook out there, so far, Kittel’s is the only one I’ve found that does such a great job of getting you into the text quickly and easily. She accomplishes this by teaching what she feels are the most common elements of Hebrew first, and going on from there.

Now, some who have learned a little bit less inductively (which is most) might find the book to be a bit “disorganized,” but to some extent that is the nature of inductive study. She uses an example text (usually a phrase or sentence) for each lesson which exemplifies the aspects of Hebrew she wants to teach. Lesson One starts with ויאמר יהוה. Yes, she starts with the wayyiqtol 3ms, which is literally EVERYWHERE in the Hebrew Bible. The student doesn’t learn another PGN until several lessons later, and that’s the 3mp – finally, quite a few lessons later she springs the whole prefix paradigm on you. Intermingled are other new aspects – the qatal form, the Pi’el, singular and plural masculine nouns, etc. She almost always introduces a new form, stem, etc in part before she introduces it in full, using only elements the student already knows. Therefore, she might seem to “skip around” a lot – but once again, this isn’t a grammar, it’s a textbook.

It is also very much a workbook. She guides the student step by step through the lesson verse – asking key questions to nudge them in the right direction, making him or her fill in blanks along the way, and introducing new elements as one comes to them in the verse. As the student masters new concepts, she starts saying things like, “of course, you know by now that ….. means/is a _____:” and moves on quickly. Each lesson usually ends with some supplemental grammatical information, exercises (translation, as well as other types) that hammer on the new concepts learned that lesson, and instructions to memorize some more vocab (out of her list found at the back of the book).

She teaches parsing (and everything else) VERY diagnostically, so you could, theoretically, get away without ever memorizingverbal or noun paradigms when using her book (though she does recommend learning some of them throughout the book, she does such a great job there is very little that is required to be memorized). To some extent, how much needs to be memorized depends on the teacher. Nevertheless, her key word is recognize, not memorize. This last bit is one of the reasons I like using it for teaching the layperson: memorizing a ton of paradigms can be very daunting and a major stumbling block, and for just a 1st year reading knowledge of Hebrew, frankly, isn’t necessary.

Finally, at the end of the book she provides notes on reading and translating several handfuls of prolonged biblical texts (mostly narrative, some poetry at the end) that are meant to be worked through when the student reaches a particular lesson and has certain concepts under their belt (they start somewhere between lessons 12 and 19). I didn’t do this in my undergrad, as it’s optional, until after the fact, when I worked through several on my own. These help the student to begin working through longer texts using the knowledge they’ve learned, with some help from Bonnie.

This is not to say that the book doesn’t have it’s faults. There are things that I would change if I were writing a similar textbook (as I hope to do someday, geared for lay people, specifically). But, all-in-all, I still to this day (even though I’ve been shown other books that claim to be inductive) have yet to find a 1st year Hebrew textbook that does quite the job she does of getting a beginning student reading Hebrew quickly, and does it in an enjoyable way.

It’s That Time of Year!

Tuesday, August 25th, 2009

With the Fall semester just around the corner, it’s time for my beginning of semester run-down of classes. This semester is going to be a doozy – I have 5 resident classes and 1 SemLink (GCTS’s distance ed), not to mention doctoral apps and ministry at church (including the Hebrew class that I am now teaching).

Advanced Hebrew Grammar with Tom Petter
Calvin and I are really looking forward to this. It’s an independent study, but since we’re both taking it we’ll essentially be doing all the work together – which will include translating and syntactically tagging the entire book of Judges. I’m excited to see how this goes.

Intermediate Greek with Dave Mathewson
I’m kinda neutral towards this class – it’s required for my MABL and I really need it anyways to help further cement my Greek. But, as I’ve mentioned before on multiple occasions, Greek isn’t really my first love. However, I’ve heard that Dr. Mathewson has a different take on the Greek verbal system than we learned in Greek I & II so that should be at least mildly interesting to learn about.

Prophetical Books with Donna Petter
This is the first class I will have taken with the other Petter at GCTS, so I’m curious to see what her teaching style is like. You may remember that I took Poetical Books with Doug Stuart last semester and had fun typing my Lamentations exegesis paper, which has shown up in various parts over the summer on this blog. This time, I’m hoping to be able to do something in Jeremiah. I may also find out if I can sub in a research paper instead of the exegesis paper – since I’ve already done one at the 700 level.

Exegesis of James with Sean McDonough
I took Exegesis of John, my required Gospel exegesis course this past summer, and now I’m getting the epistle requirement out of the way this fall. I am, of course, neatly avoiding Paul. James is one of my favorite NT books, so I’m sure this class will present some fun tidbits for thought (even if it is more GREEK).

Middle Egyptian I with Alejandro Botta
We are taking advantage of the BTI again this year, and will be taking this class at Boston University. From what I understand, it’s a joint offering from the School of Theology and the Archaeology Department. We already have our textbooks for this one (just came in today!) and I’m pretty psyched. It’s going to be a lot of work, but worth it, I think.

Contemporary Theology and Theologians
This is the SemLink that I have had all summer to work on but have barely touched. Unfortunately, between two summer classes and visiting family for the past 3 weeks, I haven’t had a whole lot of spare time. That means this is essentially a sixth class I have to do this semester, which will make my life very hectic, to say the least. Nevertheless, I am and have been looking forward to some of the reading.

Lament Forms in Lamentations 2: Part II

Tuesday, July 14th, 2009

The community lament, the funeral song, and the city lament appear to be the main influences on the poetry of Lamentations. In chapter two, the community lament is particularly strong, though it consists only of complaint and petition. In verses 18-22, several points of comparison can be made with the three forms summarized above:

18-19: The initial address to the wall is a characteristic found in the city lament.1 These verses also contain the summons to mourn found in the qinah form. While not exactly a petition itself, the poet here calls on Daughter Zion to petition God. There is also a continuation of the complaint in the description of the condition of the children in verse 19.

20: The standard petition of the community lament is found here in the mouth of the city – an imperative directed at God. In this case, ראה and נבט are the verbs chosen to encourage God to act. Of course, the fact that the poet demands that God “look” indicates that he is not currently “looking,” therefore hints at the divine abandonment motif of city laments (also featured frequently in individual laments). Also in this verse is the hint of reprimand and incredulity that is often found in the psalmic laments: because of God’s actions XY and Z has occurred – does God really want XY and Z to continue?

21-22: The poet returns to the complaint against God. God is accused of slaughtering the people without mercy, and no one has escaped his wrath. This is, of course, also a general description of the distress in correlation to the qinah. As in the beginning of the chapter, the blame continues to be assigned to the deity – echoes of the city lament. Finally, in these last two verses as well as verse 20, there is the possibility that that the personification of the city as a woman could be an Israelite version of the “weeping goddess” of the city lament.

Verses 20-22 in and of themselves are a mini-lament, since they are put as a unit into the mouth of Daughter Zion. She begins with a petition, and moves on to the complaint, as noted above.

Obviously a tone of sorrow and mourning permeates the entire passage, though anger is especially prominent in chapter two. After evaluating the forms most likely to have influenced chapter two and specifically verses 18-22, one could indeed say that Lamentations is a mixture of forms. The community lament is especially prominent in chapter two, and several features of the Mesopotamian city lament can also be seen. Whether or not the qinah form had a real influence on this chapter is debatable; a general feeling of lamentation is of course common to all three forms. Nevertheless, chapter two cannot be pinpointed into any one form. The variety of motifs drawn together, however, is “not something to be scoffed at or derided, but should be celebrated and enjoyed.”2 It is difficult to tell if the pulling of various types of lament was intentional; either way, the poet shows his skill in weaving a dramatic and emotional portrayal of the grief of the people, pulling in whatever resources he had available, whether consciously or subconsciously.

Whether one wants to create a new form, as does Berlin, or be satisfied identifying the poem as a creative mixture of several types of forms, the end result is one of emotional rawness that probably would have been used by the community in their mourning of the destruction of Jerusalem and the death and exile of many of her people. In this respect, it could have been used very much as a metaphorical dirge. Certainly, it is very unlikely that the poem was used to commemorate the re-building of the temple, as it is theorized that some city laments were used. The closest connections for use are those of the community lament, which later became integrated into the formal liturgy of the community.3


  1. Berlin, Lamentations, 75.
  2. Dobbs-Allsop, Lamentations, 12.
  3. Berlin, Lamentations, 35-36.

Lament Forms in Lamentations 2: Part I

Monday, July 13th, 2009

My next two posts on Lamentations will focus on identifying the form of Lamentations 2 (though it applies generally to Lamentations as a whole as well). Keep in mind that this is a very broad overview of the issues as part of a larger paper, so there is obviously a lot here that could be treated much more in depth. Once again, enjoy, and comments are always welcome!


The genre of Lamentations seems almost laughably obvious, as it is reflected in the English title. Lamentations is part of the broad category of lament literature, a genre which at its core is “a cry uttered when life falls apart.”1 The book is composed of five separate “laments.” Chapter two is one of these laments, and verses 18-22 are one part of the lament of chapter two. Identifying the type of lament in chapter two, and the laments of Lamentations as a whole, is more complex.

The most well known biblical laments are, of course, the psalmic laments, which are in and of themselves broken down into two types: the individual and the community lament. Other forms of lament are the dirge (funeral lament) and the city lament. The problem with Lamentations, especially chapters one, two, and four, is that it does not fit neatly into any of the lament forms named above. That is to say, it is not just that the lament is missing parts of a typical community lament, for instance, but rather that it appears to be a mixture of several types of laments. Chapter two is one of these “hybrid” forms.

The first type of lament that has similarities to the chapter in question is the community lament. The community lament generally consists of the following parts:2

  1. Address to God
  2. Complaint (against God, themselves, and/or the enemy)
  3. Review of God’s past acts
  4. Petition
  5. Divine response3
  6. Vow to praise

In the community lament, the community cries out to God because of a disaster by which the whole people are affected. The community lament seeks to prompt God to action to help and deliver his people. In many ways, chapter two has similarities with the community lament. A “disaster par excellence” was at hand, and the community cries out to God in the hopes that he will act, or in the case of chapter two, have mercy after all.4 However, unlike the community (or individual) lament, the chapter consists entirely of the complaint and petition portions of the lament. There is no summary of God’s past gracious acts and no hint of a response from God. Chapter two, especially, is entirely consumed by reviewing not the gracious acts of God but the recent destructive acts of God (vs. 1-18; complaint against God) and a demand for God to act (vs. 19-22; petition). Certainly, there is no vow of praise (or an expression of confidence, as in the related individual lament). One might then ask, can chapter two really be called a community lament in form, when it is missing so many of the crucial pieces of the lament?

Another possibility that may have had influence on Lamentations chapter two is the funeral dirge, or qinah form. Examples of actual dirges in the Bible are limited, but the prophets make use of the dirge form metaphorically in many instances.5 Elements of a dirge may include any of the following:6

  1. Announcement that a death has occurred
  2. Summons to mourn
  3. Thematic statement of finality
  4. Contrast motif
  5. Reference to the impact of the demise upon immediate bystanders
  6. Description of a general state of distress

The opening איכה of Lamentations 2 might be said to have similarities to a dirge. Additionally, there is a clear “summons to mourn” and certainly a description of suffering. Nevertheless, a true qinah was used for mourning over the death of an individual; any similarities to the dirge in Lamentations 2 are purely metaphorical in nature. Adele Berlin notes the similarities of the poems in Lamentations to both a community lament and a dirge, and suggests a new form for the laments that is part community lament, part dirge, with a little bit of uniqueness thrown in: the Jerusalem lament.7

The final type of lament that has been compared extensively to the laments of Lamentations is the Mesopotamian city lament. These laments, which “describe the destruction of particular cities and their important shrines,” date to the 2nd millennium BCE.8 The features of a city lament are as follows:9

  1. A somber and mournful mood
  2. Specific literary techniques: interchange of speakers, contrast and reversal, focus on a deity, kirugu form, lists
  3. Divine abandonment
  4. Assignment of responsibility to divine council
  5. Divine agent of destruction
  6. Destruction of the city, sanctuary, people, and their customs
  7. A weeping goddess
  8. Lamentation
  9. Restoration of the city and return of the gods

F. W. Dobbs-Allsop has compared and contrasted each of these elements with the poems in Lamentations and comes to the conclusion that they have many features in common. However, he notes that ultimately the author of Lamentations does not copy exactly the city lament, but molds it to Israelite customs and beliefs.10 Most scholars now admit at least some similarities between Lamentations and the Mesopotamian city lament genre, though not all agree that the city lament is the most important influence on Lamentations.11


  1. Longman, Jeremiah, Lamentations, 330.
  2. The list to follow is taken from Westermann, The Psalms, 35-43.
  3. This part is perhaps negligible, since even Westermann admits that it is only barely hinted at in a few community laments. Westermann, The Psalms, 42-43.
  4. Gottwald, Studies, 34.
  5. Westermann, Lamentations, 1-2 identifies only two actual recorded dirges, but several artistic imitations of dirges, most notably David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan in 2 Sam. 1:19-27, and “prophetic announcements of judgment clothed in the language of a dirge,” p. 2.
  6. List taken from Westermann, Lamentations, 2.
  7. Berlin, Lamentations, 25.
  8. F.W. Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, 13.
  9. The following list is summarized from Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, 30-96.
  10. Ibid., 95-96.
  11. Berlin, Lamentations, 26-30 sees the community lament as the most important influence, and raises some objections and major differences between Lamentations and the city laments.

The Use of the Acrostic in Lamentations

Monday, July 6th, 2009

What follows is a section from my paper which summarizes the various possibilities regarding the purpose behind the use of an acrostic in Lamentations. At the moment, I am most convinced of the idea that the acrostic (at least here) somehow expresses completeness. However, I am open to other convincing arguments!

Lamentations 2:18-22 is part of a chapter, indeed a book, that makes use of the literary device of the acrostic. Each of the five chapters has 22 stanzas, the number of letters in the Hebrew alephbet. In chapter one, each stanza has three lines, with the exception of verse 7. The first line in each stanza begins with a consecutive letter of the alephbet. In chapter two, the chapter in which the passage under consideration here resides, each stanza also has three lines, and again the first line in each stanza begins with a consecutive letter of the alephbet. Chapter three also has three lines per stanza, however in this chapter each line of every stanza begins with its respective letter.1 Chapter four has two lines per stanza, and again, the first line of each stanza begins with its respective letter. Chapter five is the only anomaly, as the letters of the alephbet are not actually utilized in an acrostic form. However, there are still exactly 22 single line stanzas in chapter five. This seems to be too close to the acrostic form to be a coincidence.

Many have speculated on why the author used the acrostic so extensively. The acrostic is a known literary device, and in fact shows up in several other places in the Bible, Psalms 119 being the most well known.2 For a book filled with such raw emotion, it seems strange to impose such a rigid structure on the text. There are several theories as to the purpose of acrostics generally, and several more on why the poems in Lamentations, specifically, appear in acrostic form.

Acrostics are thought to serve one or more of several possible purposes. Later literature could have utilized the acrostic because of some belief in the magical power of the alephbet; however, this was a later development and highly unlikely to have been involved in the purpose of the acrostics in Lamentations, as the book is dated too early for this to be an influence.3 The second option and probably at least part of the reason for the use of the acrostic in Lamentations is that it was a pedagogical tool designed to aid in memorization (a mnemonic device).4 A third possibility is that using an acrostic allowed the author to show the full extent of his skill in vocabulary and arrangement of the poem.5

Why use acrostics in Lamentations? The suggestion has been made, the artificial feeling of the acrostic having been noted, that the acrostic form was a later addition to the poems and thus meaning should not be gleaned from its usage.6 However, the organization of the five poems with an intensified acrostic at the middle in chapter three, shorter stanzas in chapter four, and a quasi-acrostic in chapter five, seems to suggest a more meaningful purpose behind the arrangement.7 There is one other proposed purpose of the acrostic that is most prominent in Lamentations: the acrostic gives a feeling of completeness. In Lamentations, the completeness would not be the feeling of having exhausted the topic in each poem, but in having expressed the completeness of the grief and anguish of the poet, a “complete cleansing,” so to speak.8 In the historical books, an account is given of the events behind the grief of Lamentations. However, whereas the descriptions of the events that would lead to the writing of Lamentations were matter-of-fact, even cold, in the historical accounts, in Lamentations the stark, heart-wrenching reality of what this judgment from God meant for the people is eloquently elucidated. Their grief is all-encompassing, and they are utterly spent in their sorrow.


  1. I.e., there are three lines beginning with א, three with ב, and so forth.
  2. Other biblical examples of acrostics or partial acrostics include several other Psalms (for example 9-10, 25, 34, 37) and Prov. 31:10-31.
  3. Gottwald, Studies, 25.
  4. Ibid., 26-29.
  5. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry, 198.
  6. Claus Westermann, Lamentations, 100.
  7. Cf. Gottwald, Studies, 30.
  8. Ibid., 30.